In order to explore the local and transnational mobilization of the genetically modified (GM) crops, we refer to the three countries such as India, Brazil, and South Africa. The genetically modified crops were introduced in India in 1990, later in 1995 transgenic materials were imported to India. The Bt cotton crops were one of them and were not approved till March 2002. There were illegal plantings of these crops. In South Africa, these crops were introduced by Monsanto in 1992. In Brazil, the genetically modified crops were smuggled from Argentina. Over a period of time, there has been a massive wave for the promotion of genetically modified crops through media, and the objective was for the commercialization of these crops. There was a similar discourse on genetically modified crops in all the three countries (India, South Africa and Brazil), there were groups which emerged and were against these crops. There was an uprising of different alliances and affiliations and many movements which came forward at local, international and global level. These anti crop uprisings with the collective effort of agrarian sector, internet Consumer campaigns led to the global activism. The main argument of anti (genetically modified crops) activists was to preserve the biodiversity(increasing threats towards nature and soil) as because of the usage of these crops there was a rising monopoly power, which allows the farmers to follow a uniform method which was dominated by corporate capitalist agriculture. These genetically modified genetic materials were not safe and would produce unhealthy and unsafe products for the consumers. The contradictions lies here that the professional Genetic Modified seeds would reduce the costs of the inputs as they were low in cost and would help the farmers as well as consumers and would reduce the gap between rich and poor, according to them there is no threat to environment and health by using these crops. According to the assumption of the makers of these crops, they claim a successful usage of these crops and would result in “gene revolution”. There were two schools of thought such as the major chunk of the population which includes activists, environmentalists were against the GM crops and others the makers of GM crops were not against the usage of these crops. The anti GM groupings included a wide array of people from all over the world to join the movement against the usage of these crops. There are large mobilization dynamics which explore both local and translational character of activism.
MOBILIZATION DYNAMICS: DIFFERENT COUNTRIES DIFFERENT CONTEXT
India The debate around the GM crops was brought to national media around 1998 and was called as terminator controversy. By the mid 1998, there was a series of public relations battle and many NGO’s launched various predominant movements such as “Monsanto quit India campaign”, “cremate Monsanto”, “Bury the WTO”. There were objections from the court petition by the Research foundation for science technology and ecology when the BT material was imported to India which was headed by vandana Shiva(leader or spokesperson). There was a gene campaign in 2001 by Delhi high court which claimed illegal sales of the GM crops in Gujarat. There were many forms of protest which included rallies, freeze campaigns etc against the GM crops. In 2002 there was a formal protest when BT cotton was released which resulted in cotton crop burning protests. Formal protests continued till 2003 and 2004 but 2005 was the most important year as it provided a review of BT cotton survey. These surveys resulted in limited use of technology.
South Africa
Bio watch an important campaign which was launched in 1997 in South Africa by Rachel wynberg, a biological Scientist. This campaign included shops, debated workshops etc. By 2000, an organisation SAFEAGE (South African Freeze Alliance on Genetic Engineering) was launched by an activist Glenn Ashton, the purpose of the campaign was to raise awareness through technology against the GM crops. The campaign was raised via newspapers, articles, TV talk shows etc. This campaign was opposed with another pro-GM organisation which was known as “Africa bio”, launched 1990 and took a stance in scientific expertise. Debate was mostly dominated by White, and educated activists and were they tend to reform a ‘new’ South Africa with their views and ideologies. There ideologies were different and the SAFEAGE Alliance included 20,000 people across South Africa with several groups and unions such as farmer groups, consumer groups, Development and environment organisations, faith groups, conservation groups, green groups etc. The world summit on sustainable development held in Johannesberg in 2002 marked an important event as it brought the GM issue to the international level. Many people from South Africa participated in the meeting as it motivated and boosted confidence of the participants. After a decade, things got sorted and the GM debate was opened up to a greater scrutiny.
Brazil
Much of the anti GM activism was centered in the courts in Brazil. There were certain complaints and lawsuits filed. The protests were increased in 1999 with the technological and media coverage. IDEC and green peace movements started building consumer awareness. In 2000, many GM products were found in Brazilian supermarkets, later in 2001 many protests were in focus against the supermarkets. The campaigns involved a diversity of people from various organisations, environmentalists, consumers, developers, education groups. Despite the bans, GM crops were still planted in many parts of Brazil. In 2003, the Lula government was in dilemma either to continue planting the GM crops or to ban and destroy the crops. The vision of GM free Brazil cannot be achieved.
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS, LOCAL ROOTS
GM crops created a different outlook in the agrarian sector. In India, GM crops (other than cotton) were also employed by farmers but GM crops were not feasible to the poor farmers. The anti-GM crops panel argued that the usage of crops in agrarian sector will bring certain inequalities, landlessness and impoverishment. In all the three countries, where GM crops were exposed to be precise India, Brazil and South Africa, the linkage to the global domain was common. The issue of GM crops was also linked to many other issues of global poverty, technological advancements, trade, human rights etc. The globalization of campaigns and protests led to number of consequences, it linked different people which hold similar views through internet, email, meetings, workshops etc. Notably professor N D nanjundaswamy from India took the campaign from local to state level farmer leader to international level. He was also esteemed as the ‘southern farmer leader’ who raised a voice of the poor and marginalized.
MOBILIZATIONS IN PRACTICE: SITES OF ENGAGEMENT
These mobilizations took various forms such as of formal protests, consultations with state agencies etc. There was much of the involvement of the parliament, political parties and policy makers etc. The projects, campaigns and different viewpoints of the people became demonstration sites and witnessing opportunities. These mobilizations apart from the actual objective became a face of mere media and much more of publicity. There were press releases and media spotlight coverage not only to discuss the main objective of discussing the issue of GM crops but also to attain a public fame on record. Media imposed a major influence on the mobilizations.
UNDERSTANDING MOBILIZATIONS PROCESSES: ANTI-GM ACTIVISM IN CONTEXT
The strategies, tactics and the transition of mobilizations from democratic to neo liberal economic reforms, focussing on political economic contexts creates a better understanding of mobilizations.
Political and economic transitions: India, Brazil and South Africa are Democratic countries. The democratic transition in South Africa came in 1994 and in Brazil in 1986 similarly India gained its independence in 1947. The sub-national politics also played an important part. In all the three countries agrarian settings are in transition coupled with agrarian politics, and new economy dominating everything. The political constituencies were divided which was an important aspect of elections in all the three countries.
Linking issues: Beyond the GM- Debate
The links of the GM debate was more widespread as it were linked with the high profile issues and concerns. Some of the issues in Brazil were linked to food rights and food sovereignty. In South Africa the political movement became ruling party. Activists have linked the GM problems to indebtedness and acquiring credit loans from the companies. It has also been linked to soil erosion and the degrading quality of soil. In South Africa, on the other hand consumers raised questions on the quality of food they talked about the nutritional quality of the AIDs sufferers.
CONCLUSION
The anti-GM mobilizations are much more fragile and based on interactions rather than the stereotypical classical movements. The mobilizations started from the very local character and reached its pace to international character. There is also an alliance or coalition which is formed by the like minded people such as those elites, educated and urban leaders etc. The positioning of anti-GM views had also created a sort of conflict between the activists. Some groups of activists feel more comfortable focusing on the environmental issues while others are more comfortable focusing on the food security and quality issues. There is a difference between the activists who are against the GM crops and have several debates relating to the issue whereas the Pro GM commentators argue that the activists who are against the GM crops are merely rambling and also smuggling to the other debates which no longer are necessary and cannot fit into the discussions. Anti GM activists lay their emphasis on values and politics which are considered as an important element of the citizenship.
Tanya is an excellent team player with strong cognitive skills. She has a keen interest in sociology and is a passionate writer. Currently pursuing a Ph.D., she is a strong believer in righteous acts and good deeds.